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Carbon governance in England
The reduction of carbon emissions, along with other greenhouse gases (GHGs), has become a vitally important task of international, national and local actors. If we understand governance as the creation of “conditions for ordered rule and collective action”〔Stoker, G. Governance as theory: five propositions. ''International Social Science Journal''. Volume 50 1998, p17-28 (p17).〕 then, given the fact that the reduction of carbon emissions will require concerted collective action, it follows that the governance of carbon will be of paramount concern. We have seen numerous international conferences over the past 20 years tasked with finding a way of facilitating this, and while international agreements have been infamously difficult to reach, action at the national level has been much more effective. In the UK, the Climate Change Act 2008 committed the government to meeting significant carbon reduction targets. In England, these carbon emissions are governed using numerous different instruments, which involve a variety of actors. While it has been argued by authors like Rhodes that there has been a “hollowing out” of the nation state, and that governments have lost their capabilities to govern to a variety of non-state actors and the European Union,〔Rhodes, R. A. W. The Hollowing out of the State: The Changing Nature of the Public Service in Britain. ''The Political Quarterly''. Volume 65 1994, p138-151 (p139).〕 the case of carbon governance in England actually runs counter to this. The government body responsible for the task, the Department of Energy and Climate Change (DECC), is the “main external dynamic”〔Davies, J. S. The Governance of Urban Regeneration: A critique of the 'Governing without Government' Thesis. ''Public Administration''. Volume 80 2002, p301-322 (p309)〕 behind governing actions in this area, and “rather than hollowing out (there has actually been a strengthening of) central co-ordination”.〔Bell, S. & Hindmoor, A. ''Rethinking governance: the centrality of the state in modern society''. Cambridge University Press 2009, p87.〕 The department may rely on other bodies to deliver its desired outcomes, but it is still ultimately responsible for the imposition of the rules and regulations that “steer (carbon) governmental action at the national level”.〔Heritier, A. & Lehmkuhl, D. Introduction: The Shadow of Hierarchy and New Modes of Governance. ''Journal of Public Policy''. Volume 28 2008, p1-17 (p2).〕 It is therefore evident that carbon governance in England is hierarchical in nature, in that “legislative decisions and executive decisions”〔 are the main dynamic behind carbon governance action. This does not deny the existence of a network of bodies around DECC who are part of the process, but they are supplementary actors who are steered by central decisions. This article focuses on carbon governance in England as the other countries of the UK (Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland) all have devolved assemblies who are responsible for the governance of carbon emissions in their respective countries.
==Policy Instruments==
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